2

  -2022

 5  

 

(    )

:    : 100

:          ,             

             

 -

1.           

2.            

 -

3.            

4. -           

 -

5.            

6.               

2

 -

7.           

8.          

  -2022

 5  

 

(    )

:    : 100

:          ,             

             

 -

1.           

:- :          

 ,             ,   

  , "  -         

   "        ;     ? 

      ,          ,    

     

☀         

         ,   1990      

 ,     ,    -      

                ,   

             ,    

,         ,         

2

             ,     

             - 

  

󷵞󷵟󷵠󷵡󷵢   -      

               -

   ""  -         

-            ,  

        -        — 

—       :   ,   :    

          ?

       :

.   ,       

.            

.          

  :       

                   

  ;      ,       

 

󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨    :    

                

   ,   , ,         

      , ,          

  

-19              

                  

          

     ,       



󷸌󷸍 2.      -                

            ,   ,  

             

2

󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨    :   

        ?         ,

                

      ,          

 

      ,  , ,    

           ;      

󺅕󺅓󺅖󺅗󺅘󺅔      ?   " "   

-                  

                , 

     -    

         ,       

    ,   ,        

   (           )

,      :

        →       → 

         →         

     

󹸯󹸭󹸮     :  

.        ;       

.-            -    



. -               - 

    

.            ;       

󹱑󹱒   -        

      :

󷵄󷵅󷵆󷵇󷵈󷵊󷵉󷵋    

.      ,      

2

.,      ,      ( ,

 )   (,  )    

.2020  ,         

.-19,   ,           

., ,       

.,     ;        

,    ,    

󺈰󺈱󺈲󺈳󺈴󺈵        ?

-       :

.  ;                

?      ?

.   ;           ,   

         

.          (    , 

 , ),             



  :-            :

               : 

                

           ,    

  ,   ,  ,  ,   

󷃆󼽢   :   

-              

                   

  ,          ,      

       

    , "         ?"  

    : "  -   "

2

2.            

:        



   :  



    ,   ,        

       ;   ;      

 ,     ,         , 

         ,       

        " 



"   , ""

     ?

󹴮󹴯󹴰󹴱󹴲󹴳   



 

 



         ,     , 

 ,              

        



          

  

   -   



       -  

    

  



   

1.       

                ,  

              , , 

      

2.    

                   

          ,         

    

3.    

       ,         ,

     ,  -        

               

4.     

        ,  ,    ,    

     ?  ,        

  

5.        - 

        ,       -

2

           ,       

 ,             ,    

₹100        

6.         

                ,  

   ,             

         

7.          

        -        ;   

              ,  

     

8.      

   ;   ;     ,    

                 

      

9.      

      ,        , 

             

10.   

                   

                

 

11.       

   ,         

              

   

12.   

       ,          ,

 -              



󼨐󼨑󼨒        

"  ;      "    ,   

                

    

󹵲󹵳󹵴󹵵󹵶󹵷   :       ?

,   ,     ,  ,    

           ,    

2

   

,               

 

 -

3.            

:        





















   

                 

                  

              

          

•   

•    

•    

                 

󷆫󷆪 1.     

1950             -     

                 :

• 󹱩󹱪    

• 󷸌󷸍    

• 󼿝󼿞󼿟  

                

    ,              

󼿝󼿞󼿟        

               :

           :

𝑌 = 𝐹 (𝐾,𝐿 )

2

 :

• Y =  

• K = 

• L = 

󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷     -       ,      

   :

 ,                



•   -      

•     ;     

•   :           

3.     

        

 1:  

•          

•       ,      

•        

  !        (    ),     

       

         

:

• X-:   ()

• Y-:   /   

󹳦󹳤󹳧  :

1. Y:  

2. sY,  

3. (δ + n)k:     

 :

• sY =   

2

• δk = 

• nk =       

󷃆󽅕        ,   :  =  +  

   

󷇴󷇵󷇶󷇷󷇸󷇹  2:  

     

     :

󺭬󺭭  =  +      

󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷  



:

•       ,      

•               

󼿝󼿞󼿟  3:    

      ()   :

𝑌 = 𝐹 (𝐾,𝐿,𝐴 )

 :

 ,     ,        

 

󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨           

󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷       





 

, , 

 

   

  

     

  

      

 

       

 

      

2

󼿰󼿱󼿲    :    



 

     ,             

     

1.      

         ""    !     :

• , ,       

          ,         

   

            

󽅂 2.           

  ,            :

•            

   ,     

    ,          

3.     

            :

󷆰 



     

󹵲󹵳󹵴󹵵󹵶󹵷      -    

󼩷󼩸󼩹󼩺󼩻      

󷵻󷵼󷵽󷵾  ,          

4.     

            ,       

 :

   



         

    , ,   

                 

5.      

            :

•        ?

2

•         ?

•               

           ?

 ,     :

•           

•        

•         -,     

•    -          -  

         

󼨐󼨑󼨒  :       ?

       ?   ,     

        ,      -   

 

󷕘󷕙󷕚          :

              ,   

       

󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷              ,   

              

4. -           

: -       

  :  





                 

 :

• 



  —, ,        

• ,  - -        ,    

 



         

 ,    ( )    ( ), 20      

        :

 



     -          ?

2

               - 

 -        

    

-   :

            

    :

•       

•          

 ,           

      

                :

1.             ;     

()      

2.      ,      

3.   -   ,          

           

4.               

    

    :

1.     (  )   -  (v)   

  - ,  -      ,   ₹1  

       ₹5       ,  -

  (v) = 5

2.   



           -    

     = 0.2  20%         

₹100   ₹20  

- 





  (G)    :G = S ÷ V

 :

G =   

S =   V = - 

2

    -      

 :-     

 -   ,   : -    (



  ),

   (    )

      

           :

1.    (Ga):        

2.    ( ):           -  

  

3.     (Gn):     ,  

    

  

        :

               

   :

•            ,    

    

•                

 -       "  "   ;    ,  

    

      

     , -       

  :

1.            

2.     : ,        

3.     ; -       

4.                  



2

    

    ,       ,       

            

     ?

•      

•       ,        

•    -     

 

 -   ,        :

1.             ,    



2.           ,     

       

3.            ,     

  

4.               ,   

       

    

 ,         ,  -  

   :

•     

•  ()   

•                



   

-    :  =  ÷ - 

•       ,      

•  -             

2

 -

5.            

: 



 

     



      ,       

        ,    ,    , 

  ,            

  1960     "   "      

   

 ,       ,   -

    ,       

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     

            ,   

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  

,         

,  

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         

 :    

     ,  

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          

         ,       , 

           ,   ,   

   

           ,        

               

              

                   

                     

  

 2: -    

      -            ,

           ,        -

     -    

   ,              

           ,  

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  

        

2

  ,              

                  

        -    

 3: -

          " "     -  

                   

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 

       

                    

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

   10-15%   ,          

                

           

   ,               

                  

        

 4:    

               

                     

  ,              

           

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 ,   

    

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       

  ,          , , ,

        , ,     

         

   :      

              , ,    

            ,   

     

  ,             

                 ,

         

  ,              -

          ,       

                

   (   )

2

         -     

                

                 



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                 ,

               

            ,     ,

        

,        -       

  

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      ,       

  ,  ,    -,    , 

        

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       

  ,  

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            ,

                 ,

   ,              

           ,     

  

endpoint

                  

 



    ,     ,     

           

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     ; 

            

           ,    

    ,          

             

 ,                ,

              

6.               

:        :  - 

:      

   



       



     

                 

     :

2

•    ()– 



      

•     ()-            

        ,    ;    

    -    

1.   :  

 ,              

  ,               

       

               

               ,  

, ,          ,     

 ,             ,   

             ,    

  

     :

  →   →     →   →  

2.     ?

 :  

 ,             

,         

              

,                

                

              

  ,             

     :

    →      +     →      →

   →  

3.      

2



  

   

 

   

      

 

:  

:  

 



 ,  , 

,     



 

, ,  ,



, , 

4.   : 1950-1970             

,                 

             

    

   ,             (1980 

   )       ,   ,  

             

5.   :     

 :

•    

•      

•       

•         

 :

•     

•         

•       

6.    :     

2

 :

•     

•       

•    

•     

 :

•          

•       

•          

7.    

    :

   ,    (, )       

      ,            

    

     :

  1950  1980          ,  

             

  ,           

8.    -   

       

•            

•  ,                

  :

    →   ←→    ←→   

  1950-1980       1991   ,   

                

  , ,        

9.       

    :

•  

2

•    ()

•      

•       

     :

•   

•  

•     

•   

10.  ,     ?

           -  ,  

               

;        

  ,   



     



     

                ,  

 ()          ()    



 -

7.           

:    :    

                  

                 , 

      ,    ,        

                

   ,     ,       

         ,        

     ,          

,        ,            

  ,               

          

2

1.   :     

                   

       ,    ,        

  

       , ,        

          ,        , "

  ,           "

           :

•        ?

•   ,          ?

•         ?

                

      

2.    : -    

               -  

     ,             



               

                

          ,       , 

     ,     ,       

  

      :

•             ?

•           ?

•     ?

                

        

3.     :   

         ,          

   ,        ,     

 ,            

2

 ,                 

  ,      

            :

•      

•        

•    .

            :

•       ?

•      ?

•        ?

             

4.   :        

                  

              

      ,           

               

          "        



:

•             ?

•        ?

•          ?

               

           

5.   -   

        : , , ,      

     ,              

               

            ,     

,          

   ,      :

2

•     ?

•    ?

•            ?

   ,           

6.    -        

               

                 

      

       ,         

               , 

       

    :

•        ?

•          ?

•          ?

               

7.     :     

        ,         

 ,                   ,

    ;      !

                  

        ,     



     :

•      ?

•         ?

•             ?

                 



2

8.         :    

                 

            

    ,           

                 

      

         :

•            ?

•         ?

•          ?

            

     ?

        ,      -   

              :

•        

•         

•         

•            

•         

•           

•           

•        

         ,         

   -   ,       

2

8.          

:      :     

                  

                :   

                  

       ?        

"  "  

  ,              

     ,            

,    ,         ,  

   ,           

     ?

     ,     ""      ,

                 

         :

•  ,  -       ,

•    ,

•       ,

•        

           ,     ( )

  (, , )      

      ?

        ,       

-   :

•              ,   

       

•               ,      

   

•            ,      

        

2

                 -

    , 



      ,        

 

          

                   

     ,         ?  

     ,        :

         

         ,      

             ,  

     ,             ,

     ,     , -    

   

  

         ,        

  ,    ,          

      

    :  

      ,  , -    

  -       -     

    

 ,        -    , 

             

      

-             

           

   

        -       ,  

     ,        

       

             - 

      -        

-  -  :  

   ,           :

2

• - :   ,  -   ,  

             

      ,        

 

• -    ,  -      

       ,       ,    

     ,         

                  ,

       

         

,               -

    -    ; ,   ;   



•                 

          ,     ,  ,

100       

•      , -          

              

 -  -    ,         

             ,     

  

     

             :

 ,   ,             

  ,                

   ,          

                  

       ,        

     ,        ,    -

       ,        

     ,         

        ;      

2

          ?

         ,        

 :

• 



    -      ,  -  

    

•             

•     , -  -    

  

  ,       -     ,  

          -    

          :   

-          :

•   ,      -    



•     ,     ,  - 

    

   ,         ?

                 

 :

• -      

•  : -         

•                  

• :         

              

             

 ,             

               ""  

;    , ,         

 ,         -   ,   

  ,              

2

,             ,     

   ;   ,        !   

     

"                  

      ,     "